From genotype to phenotype with biothermodynamics: empirical formulas, biosynthesis reactions and thermodynamic properties of preproinsulin, proinsulin and insulin molecules.

Abstract excerpt

Insulin was discovered 100 years ago and has been well studied from the perspectives of life and biomedical sciences. This paper reports chemical and biothermodynamic properties of biosynthesis of insulin. This paper reports for the first time the molecular and empirical formulas, biosynthesis reactions, and thermodynamic properties of molecules and their biosynthesis for human preproinsulin, proinsulin, insulin...

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