Interpretation of recurring weak associations obtained from epidemiologic studies of suspected human teratogens

Abstract excerpt

Epidemiological studies of suspected human teratogens not infrequently lead to recurring weak or moderate associations (relative risks or odds ratios ranging from greater than 1 to 3 for adverse effects and from 1/3 to less than 1 for protective effects) between specific defects and prenatal exposures. Examples of such associations include cigarette smoking and oral clefts (odds ratios between 1 and 2) and...

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