Immunological heterogeneity in rheumatoid arthritis: challenges in early-stage stratification, non-response to targeted therapy, and the restoration of immune tolerance.

Abstract excerpt

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by chronic erosive synovitis, progressive bone destruction, and marked inter-patient heterogeneity in disease course and treatment response. This review critically examines the mechanisms underlying RA immunological heterogeneity, including genetic susceptibility, epigenetic regulation, autoantibody diversification, synovial pathotypes, and...

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