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Article

Sweet Tetra-Trophic Interactions: Multiple Evolution of Nectar Secretion, a Defensive Extended Phenotype in Cynipid Gall Wasps.

The American naturalist - 1 Jan 2017

Nicholls James A, Melika George, Stone Graham N

Abstract excerpt

Many herbivores employ reward-based mutualisms with ants to gain protection from natural enemies. We examine the evolutionary dynamics of a tetra-trophic interaction in which gall wasp herbivores induce their host oaks to produce nectar-secreting galls, which attract ants that provide protection from parasitoids. We show that, consistent with other gall defensive traits, nectar secretion has evolved repeatedly...

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PMID: 28035894
DOI: 10.1086/689399

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