Costs of predator-induced phenotypic plasticity: a graphical model for predicting the contribution of nonconsumptive and consumptive effects of predators on prey.

Abstract excerpt

Defensive modifications in prey traits that reduce predation risk can also have negative effects on prey fitness. Such nonconsumptive effects (NCEs) of predators are common, often quite strong, and can even dominate the net effect of predators. We develop an intuitive graphical model to identify and explore the conditions promoting strong NCEs. The model illustrates two conditions necessary and sufficient for...

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